Korean poetry today is experiencing remarkable quantitative growth in contrast to the decline of this literary form in the Western countries. Despite the political turmoil of the 1980s, literary progress has been unexpectedly great in our country. The field of poetry was particularly active, making the decade of the 1980s truly worthy of the name "the age of poetry." During the 1980s, several anthologies sold over 200,000 copies, and one volume even broke the one million mark, a rare accomplishment anywhere in the world. Of course, the fact that certain works of a somewhat more trashy variety sold well too by appealing to baser tastes of the reading public does not mean that such works represent any true advancement in the literary form.
While some observers argue that we will see a decline in interest in poetry during the 1990s, I believe that the present high rate of readership will continue. Since the 1960s, Korean society has been driven by a firm belief in the preeminence of economic growth managed through government policy. Cultural growth has been cast in the role of social critic. In fact, from the 1970s onward, the cultural community, e.g. literary figures, intellectuals and religious leaders, became the most important force critical of the political irrationality plaguing Korea. Although the treatment of these figures has improved somewhat since 1970s, many problems remain, especially in comparison to the special privileges lavished on the economic community.
As we move into the 1990s, however, the one-sided focus on economic growth is being met by an undeniable historical transformation as a new age of culture dawns. From now on, economic growth and cultural development must proceed in tandem because social stability and growth can no longer be realized on the basis of government economic policies alone.
Why will the 1990s be the age of culture? Until very recently, the myth of economic growth had been driven by the desire for liberation from the absolute poverty which had gripped the korean peninsula. Now, that goal has changed. Growth is seem as a means of acquiring a more humane lifestyle realized through distribution and equity.
Of course, saying the 1990s are the age of culture does not mean that cultural development will be restricted to poetry alone. On the contrary, in our industrialized society, the new wave of mass entertainment spread by the electronic media could, in fact, cause a decline in poetry. I believe, however, that poetry will remain strong for two reasons. First, the younger generation which is the most accustomed of the electronic media could, in fact, cause a decline in poetry. I believe, however, that poetry will remain strong for two reasons. First, the younger generation which is the most accustomed to the electronic media has not yet reached the stage that it dominates Korean cultural development. Second, Korea's traditional respect for learning and the resulting thirst for knowledge and literature remains strong relative to some advanced capitalist countries.
In addition, while there have been some irrational elements over the years, economic growth and the expansion of education since the 1960s have resulted in a heightened demand for personal expression and an unquenchable thirst for literature.
The national conflict and contradictions embodied in the 40-tear division the Korean peninsula have also had an undeniable influence on the state of Korean poetry today and provide the genre with dramatic and poetic elements unparalleled anywhere in the world. No matter how far democratization, the development of a welfare state or the expansion of leisure facilities may go, the Korean people can not escape from the limitations imposed by the division of their nation or from the desire to overcome that division.
Another important element influencing Korean literature today is the rise of a class consciousness growing out of the mew perception of relative poverty in our modern industrialized society as opposed to the absolute poverty experienced by entire nation prior Korea's rapid economic growth in recent years. Unlike the West where class conflict has been relieved to a certain extent, conflict between economic and social classis in Korea has been exacerbated by the ideologic division of the peninsula which has prevented the healthy expression of such conflict throughout the post-war period. As a result, feelings of dissatisfaction have tended to be expressed through poetry.
Since we can hardly expect a utopia in Korea during the rest of the decade, it is clear that poetry which has thrived so on hardship and turmoil in the past will continue to develop. This is certainly a unique characteristic of Korean poetry. Unfortunately, Korean poetry has not yet been able to transcend its tradition as a mouthpiece for unhappiness, rather than a song of happiness. However, taking a more positive point of view, when Korean poetry overcomes the extreme conflict and controversies of the 1980s, we are certain to witness the birth of a beautiful literary genre which will contribute to the reduction and alleviation of the national and class sonflict which plague our society.
Ⅱ
Perhaps the most important factor which attracted the reading public to poetry during the 1980s was the growing sense of human alienation and insecurity brought on by the process of industrialization amidst the intense political and social turmoil of that decade. This sense of social and economic uncertainty threatened the public's sense of humanity as well as their psychological independence and so spurred a search for tranquility and security. It was in this atmosphere that a number of poets who served to satisfy the public's demands for emotional expression made their debuts.
The purpose of waiting
Does not have to be reunion.
If my heart is heavy.
So be it.
A distant smile flies
As I hold my shoulders back
Against the wind.
Where can they be?
Those days of wandering
In search of wandering
In search of part of myself.
If that part existed
From the moment I was born,
I want to meet it now.
(Excerpt from Standing Alone by So Chong-yun)
This poem reflecting the personal struggle of Korean youth to hide away and defend themselves from the raging historical forces which surrounded them caused a great commotion in the Korean poetry community during the 1980s. While these poets could be criticized for escapism, we can not ignore the acute suffering caused by their struggle to achieve internal fulfillment. While most of us idealize action over isolation, there are some who are more secretive. Don't they also deserve a song of comfort? This movement toward popularization brought about by industrialization is also embodied in the works of Cho Pyong-hwa
To love forever
Is to love quietly.
To love forever
Is to love like a part of nature.
Not to try to escape the loneliness,
But rather to fill it with waiting.
Love which is full only when it has been emptied.
To love forever
Is to meet the morning with tranquility.
To lose one's love
Is like the collapse of half one's body.
I want to spend my life wandering
Like the echo of the mountains ringing
Through a valley.
But a breath of wind wakes me
When I turn to where my love is buried
And not a single shadow remains.
(Excerpt from To Love Foreverfrom the anthology My Hollyhock Love by To Chongh-hwan)
Accordint to To's postscript, this anthology is an expression of the poet's longing for his dead wife. In a single leap, To's poems served to comfort those fuffering from the pain of separation which was so rampant throughout our society in the 1980'. Separation as a result of incarceration, death, forced military enlistment, flight from the law and exile was tearing Korean society apart at the seams. This pain accumulated to become a symptom of the general national mood, and so when Th's anthology, My hollyhock Love, was published, it served as a kind of all-purpose cure for the collective suffering of the Korean people. This anthology not only expressed the sorrow of separation, but also the sentiments of linely people searching for love in a society so lacking in that emotion. Thus in the midst of extreme hardship which no one can relieve, To's poetry revealed a classic, even commonplace, brand of quiet love evoking sympathy from the reading public. In this savage age in which we live, what could be more precious than love itself? In an era ruled by hate, it is only natural that love poems should appeal to readers. This trend during the 1980' clearly explains why this period must be called "the age of poetry." The tradition of lyrical poetry is the most durable in the history of Korean poetry, and while there is some variation, the works of Pak Chae-sam, Ho Yong-ja, Yu An-jin and others are most characteristic of this genre. The true face of poetry in the brutal 1980s does not lay in the sweet love or heartbreak of separation reflected in the poetry I have discussed above, however. Rather in this age echoing with the poetic cries of burning rage, lyricism seems to be hiding shyly on some dusty shelf.
Ⅲ
While poetry singing of loneliness, sorrow and pain dominated the local poetry scene, pushing traditional lyrical poetry to the sidelines, a completely unexpected declaration of revolution was heard. Pak No-hae's The Dawn of Labor, dedicated to "my fellow workers who live and work with gusto, never forgetting hope and laughter despite their miserable living conditions, low wages and long working hours," ambushed the Korean poetry community with a single shot.
Puffing on Unhasu*,
My friend Chong said
He planned to go hand-in-hand
With his wife and som
To the Children's Park
On Children's Day this tear,
But at that very moment
His hand was chopped off.
They said he was wearing overalls
So the president wouldn't take him in his Grandeur limousine
Nor would the factory manager take him in his Royale Salon
Nor the department chief in his Stellar,
So after a lot of blood was lost,
Chong went to the hospital in the back of a Titan truck.
The hand that was caught in the machinery
Was still pulsating inside his greasy glove.
Whin I saw that working man's hand
So filled with 36 years of hardship
I couldn't speak.
I clutched the hand wrapped in plastic
And went to Chong's house in Pongchon-dong.
But when I saw his wife and child,
Their eyes filled with sadness,
I couldn't make myself take the hand out.
Sitting slumped at the local store,
In the bright light of mid-day
I emptied a bottle of soju.
Then I went to the big bookstore in Chongno
To find the book on industrial accidents which Ching had asked for.
But no matter how K searched through
That damned pile of books,
There was nothing there
For a working man to read.
(*A brand of inexpensive cigarettes)
(Excerpt from A Tomb for a Hand from the anthology The Dawn of Labor by Pak No-hae)
Pak's collection of poetry was the first anthology of poems depicting the life of the working class since the division of the Korean peninsula. After its publication, a sensation which could only be called a "Pak No-hae storm" swept the literary community. Suddenly the public learned that there were also a number of professional poets who had been writing such poetry until the 1970s when they were forced to stop. The limitations of labor poetry written by professional poets were made clear by Pak's important work giving rise to the claim that labor literature should be written by the laborers themselves. The furor stirred up by Pak No-hae resulted in a flood of labor poetry written for the most part by members of the working class. Kim Hae-hwa combined Pak's intensity with the emotional lyricism of the labor force in A Laborer's Notebook. This genre took on a more forceful social consciousness in Paek Mu-san's works which reflected a clear political awareness aimed at active streggle.
This working man's poetry has elevated Korean poetry to a new level of political sensitivity foretelling new trends in the 1990s. It is unclear just what new voices will emerge in the current decade, but we can be sure that labor poetry written by the working man will play an important role in the future.
The tradition of labor poetry in Korean literary history is a long one. In the 1920s, labor poetry emerged in the proletarian revolutionary literature movement, peaking during the Japanese colonial period. The poems of Im Hwa are one example of the success of this genre. Labor poetry continued to thrive through liberation from Japanese rule in 1945 but then fell by the wayside when the nation was divided against itself. It only began to reemerge in the latter half of the 1970s together with the mass literature movement. Interest in the labor poetry of authors such as Chong Hui-song and Shin Kyong-nim faded during the 1980s when poetry written directly by the laborers emerged.
In the 1990s the most important issue facing this genre is the combination of mass appeal with a more lyrical expression. This is only possible through the instincts of the workers themselves.
Ⅳ
During the 1980s, in addition to labor poetry, two major artistic trends emerged in reaction to the historical turmoil of the era. The first was the debut of poets who conceptualized the relationship between reality and aesthetics while maintaining a contemplative stance. The second was the emergence of a new group of "participants" who sought to invigorate the feeble language which had traditionally been used in Korean poetry.
In the course of modernization, Korean poetry developed a strong anti-foreign nationalist consciousness. This tendency is closely linked to a number of traditional literary genres such as the mass lyrical poems of the Tonghak(Eastern Learning) farmers' rebellion in the late 19th century, the morality songs which reflected the Korean populace's belief in the traditional values of Confucianism and Buddhism, the folk songs expressing the common people's aspirations in the face of the tyranny and exploitation of the feudalistic system of absolute monarchy, and nationalist tongs expressing the people's resistance to the plunder of the Western imperialist powers. Beginning in the early 20th century, anti-imperialist and anti-feudal themes inevitably came to dominate Korean poetry as the country was subjected to the exploitation and pillage of the Japanese colonial forces. The poems of the Righteous Armies (Uibyong) who resisted Japanese forces on the Korean peninsula, the works of the numerous Korean exiles on the Asian mainland, and the folk songs and ballads of the farmers forced to abandon their land as a result of Japanese colonial oppression all represent the true picture of Korean poetry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In recent years, new research into poetic genres which had not been previously recorded in the history of Korean literature has been launched, and the methods of analyzing Korean poetry have changed. The conventional wisdom that the poetry of the Enlightenment poets, so strongly influenced by Western trends, was the fountainhead of modern Korean poetry has given way to the recognition of a number of poetic forms which reflected the popular aspirations of that period as the roots of today's poetry. This poetry, with its strong historical consciousness, reveals a recognition of reality unrivaled by any body of national literature found abroad. Of particular note is the KAPF(Korean Artists' Proletarian Federation) Movement which constituted the dominant literary force in the 1920s during the heyday of proletarian literature in Korea. The decade-long domination of KAPF Movement was unparalleled in the history of world literature. Of course, in contrast to the class literature of today, KAPF literature was characterized by strong anti-feudal elements and clearly reflected elements of the campaign to realize national liberation. As a result, the movement was made possible by the unique conditions brought on by the colonial experience. After the breakup of the KAPF Movement in 1935, Korean poetry searched for new variety. The pure poetry movement which accepted the fundamental elements of modernism and was driven by Chong Chi-youg, Kim Ki-rim, O Chang-hwan, Kim Yong-nang, Yi Yong-hak, Paek Sok and the like were one example of this new tendency. As a result of the extreme oppression of the Japanese regime in the form of the colonial government's cultural suppression policies, the Korean poetry community only barely managed to salvaged this brand of Western-style technicism during the 10-year period preceding Liberation. The achievements of this modernist poetry movement are great and played a significant role on promoting the discovery and advancement of the native language and the development of poetry expressing the emotions of the common people living within a society disrupted by both industrialization and urbanization. This literary trend has stretched from Liberation in August 1945 through to the present. The works of Cho Chi-hun, Pak Tu-jin, Shin Dong-jip and others represent this trend which has contributed so much to the development of an idealistic analysis of modern society in the 1980s as well.
A person who has suffered for so long will understand.
The way a sharp blade of grass droops
Even in the fading light of the setting sun.
The silent pain which is buried by that light,
The fragile blade of grass that is licked by its lips.
A person who has suffered for so long will understand.
The shame I've tried so hard to avoid was a deep love.
To hold the hand of those who came back silently in shame
The warm light as our faces meet.
You who have suffered so long
I can warm you here for a while.
(The Person Who Suffered So Long by Yi song-bok)
In Yi'w poem, the pain afflicting Korean society in the 1980s is clearly represented, and yet that pain is internalized by the poet himself. That is to say, this poem differs from what we find in labor poetry in that the poet does not convey that pain to the reader through action, but rather internalizes and hides it in his own private world. This poet can never be liberated from the pain of his time. Nor can he share the suffering of his society. This poet has, through sincere self-examination, expressed the anguish of intellectuals who can neither share with the masses nor ignore them. In fact, most Korean people who have lived through the 1980s have been forced into this position. This realistic genre, baptized in modernism, developed a large readership during the 1980s. Not only did this poetry overcome the ideological abstruseness of modern poetry, but it also elicited a strong sense of sympathy among the reading public because it reflected the poet's real life.
Behind my face
I hide.
My Knowledge of
Your pain
And the bruises it caused.
Behind my face
I hide.
The impudent strength
The limitless source
Of my despair
Of my defeatism
(Behind My Face by Choi Sung-ja)
Poets who faithfully expressed the agony suffered by intellectuals during the 1980s were able to expand their readership through their bold confession of their artistic sensibilities which were dominated by the way of thinking of the middle class of which they were a part. This realistic diagnosis of the 1980s was based on the literary tradition of the previous generation of poets such as Kwang Tong-gyu, Kim Kwang-gyu and others.
The task of putting down roots and strengthening Korean poetry in the 1980s was not an easy one. Kim Chi-ha, one of the foremost activist poets of the 1970s, had stepped back from realism and was prosing his own lyrical world. Realists from the 1980s such as Shin Kyong-nim, Yi Si-yong and Cho Tae-il were also frozen in what has been called "literarism" (munhakchu-ui). But when viewed over the long term, it is clear that the works of these poets follow in the tradition of poetry expressing an understanding of modern history. The lyrical nationalist consciousness found in the poetic tradition of anti-Japanese nationalist poets such as Han Yong-un, Yi Yuk-sa, Yi Sang-hwa and others has been reborn in the poetry of Shin Tong-yop, and is felt in the works of Ko Un, Shin Kyong-nim and Kim Chi-ha. And of course, we can not overlook the importance of the works of Kim So-wol(1903-34). Kim's portrayal of the concept of han, an enduring sense of personal loss of loneliness, has clearly been recreated in the folk tunes of the contemporary poets Shin Kyong-nim and Kim Chi-ha.
The tree is a tree by itself.
The tree becomes a tree solely by itself.
Standing alone at thirteen degrees below
Twenty below
It puts down roots and grows branches.
It stands defenseless.
Its hands raised aloft as if for punishment.
Oh, rise up, tortured body, tortured life,
But that's not it, that's not it.
Worrying with all its spirit
Burning inside, inside,
Resisting, rejection, below freezing
Above freezing, five degrees,
Thirteen degrees
Pushing, blindly pushing up
Until its body is split
Blistering until its body is split
Thrusting out a shoot with its hot tongue
Slowly, gradually, then suddenly
A green leaf appears,
Piercing the blue April sky.
The tree becomes a tree solely by itself.
Oh, finally, to the very end,
A flowering tree is a flowering tree by itself.
(Winter-From the Tree, Spring-To the Tree by Hwang Ji-u)
In fact, all Korean poetry in the 1980s coalesces in the poet Hwang Ji-u. Lyrical tradition, keen and direct participation, idealistic contemplation and fervent activism are all harmonized in Hwang's work. Hwang has blended the cries of the masses with the technique of the modernists, showing us the potential of modern Korean poetry.
There is, however, a solemn world which even Hwang Ji-u cannot approach: the genre of nationalist epic poetry as reflected in the works of the older generation of poets such as Ko Un and Shin Kyong-nim. During the 1980s when long poems were popular, epic poems based on the history of Korean nationalism flourished. Since the publication of Shin's Kumgang, however, there have been no epic works which truly deal with the issues of nationalist literature. The creation of such works is a task for the 1990s.
Poems depicting rural were quite common during the 1980s. This rural poetry, best represented by the works of Kim Yong-taek, together with the rebirth of the traditional folk song, played a significant role in the expansion of the breadth of Korea's modern poetry. While many may criticize Kim for failing to deal with issues facing the rural community, such as government agricultural policies and the farmers' movement, as have the labor poets, his poems are clearly on par with other genre of modern poetry and have served to transform the face of Korea's rural poetry.
The poems of Kim Nam-ju and Kim Hyong-su contradict the suggestion that the aforementioned poetry which serves as a weapon to criticize the realities of Korean society is the most moderate response to the events of the 1980s. Kim Nam-ju, one of the most intensely activist poets of the 1980s, pursued his artistic creation during nine years in poison and has come to represent the vanguard of Korea's contemporary poetry, replacing Kim Chi-ha who enjoyed that distinction during the 1970s. Kim Nam-ju's works can be seem as one stage in a sublimation of the long process of development for Korean poetry.
You ask
How long have I been writing poems.
I can only answer this way.
Struggle is the cradle of my poetry.
You ask
Why are my poems so cruel and fierce
Like a woodsman chopping firewood.
I can only return your question like this.
Isn't that what a fight is all about?
Once you've started, the voices soar like steeples,
And curses you'd never think of using burst out.
(Excerpt from The Poem's Cradle, The Poem's Grave by Kim Nam-ju)
This poem provides us with a sense of the transformation of poetry into a tool for political and social struggle expressed through the radical assertions of the poet himself. For Kim Nam-ju (and other poets like him), the poem does not possess any particular aesthetic meaning, but rather is an instrument in the struggle for reform if the present system. When viewed from this perspective, it is only too clear why Korean poetry in the 1980s produced wors such as Yi San-ha's Hallasan and Kim Hyong-su's The Seasom of Patriotism.
Of course, if we compare these poems with the thunderous voices raised in the works of the 1970s, we realize just how much Korean poetry has progressed over the years. The themes of these poems are generally based on an investigation of the various tragedies which comprise Korea's modern history: the examination of the causes of the division of the Korean peninsula; the Korean people's aspiration for reunification; the promotion of national independence and an end to foreign interference in Korea's domestic affairs; support for the struggle to overcome inequalities in the distribution of power and wealth; and the popular desire for complete human liberation. These poets have used a number of different methodologies to express themselves, including epic poems, satire, frontal attacks on their subjects, and at times, direct recitation, and they have enjoyed a large following among students during the 1980s, reflecting their affinity for political activism. Just as the goals of political activists can differ, so too do the works of these poets differ to varying degrees, but all share one factor: their choice of reform over a quiet life of acquiescence.
Ⅵ
How has Korean poetry reflected our national reality over the last decade? There have been two main categories of influential poets which can be classified according to their individual attitudes and literary technique.
The first category reflecting personal themes was the most successful in the 1980s and will probably maintain its popularity in the near future. This category includes poets such as So Chong-yun who, while actively accommodating Western influences, pursued their own personal (selfish) direction in their work. Yi song-bok and other artists who expressed the agony of intellectuals searching for a refuge from the trials of our society also belong to this category as do poets such as Hwang ji-u who has been so successful in socializing his personal agonies while at the same time adhering to the realities of modern society.
The second major branch of Korean poetry in the 1980s is composed of the works of poets critical of the status quo. This branch can also be divided into three general sub-branches: 1) the so-called labor poets such as Pak No-hae and Paek Mu-san who write from a class-conscious perspective; 2) the more universal nationalist works of poets like Ko Um and Shin Kyong-nim; 3) works produced by members of the radical literary movement such as Kim Nam-ju and Kim Hyong-su.
As we move into the 1990s, it is clear that Korean poetry is in need of a fresh perspective. The success of any new direction depends on two crucial issues: serious reflection about the mass poetry phenomena in the 1980s and the restoration of the genre's artistry, and the ability of idealistic authors to inspire the popular audience which has lost interest in the literary arts during the process of industrialization.
Clearly, the literary quality of the so-called mass poetry genre has improved greatly during the latter half of the 1980s, and poets in this field have recognized the need to introduce some of the techniques used by their modernist colleagues. Similarly, the somewhat self-centered poets mentioned in the first category who see personal introspection as the supreme purpose of the poetic genre have come to agree that they must not lose themselves in abstruseness. As a result, I believe that the polarization of Korean poetry between the mass poetry and the non-mass poetry camps will be overcome in the coming decade. Our experience in the 1980s proves that regardless of the political or social turmoil which surrounds us, poetry is poetry, and it is in this spirit that we must move ahead, merging the historical consciousness of such great poets as Kim So-wol, Han Yong-un, Yi Sang-hwa and Yun Tong-ju with the modernist technique of the likes of Chong Chi-yong and Kim Ki-rim.
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